Narrative Theory

Because all media texts demonstrate some form of narrative, we looked at the different theories from different theorists. Films need a narrative to be recognised as a film so these can be applied to any analysis of films (long or short). Stories / Narratives explain the world to the audience structured by language which helps them to understand the purpose of the media text.

Narrative Theory:

O'Sullivan et Al. (1998) suggested that narratives have a common structure, starting with the stablishment of plot or theme. This is then followed by the development of the problem, an enigma and an increase in tension, finally comes the resolution of the plot. Such narratives can be unambiguous and linear (when narratives follow the standard A, B, C ... pattern - where the story unfolds in order).

Barthes (1977) suggested that narrative works with five different codes and the enigma code works to keep setting problems or puzzles for the audience (this links to Audience Theory). His action code - a look, significant word or movement - is based on our cultural and stereotypical understanding of actions that act as a hint for the audience as to what the narrative will be. For example, in Sherlock Holmes, the audience are encouraged to try solving the mystery also; so if a character is speaking in hushed tones down the phone to a stranger, we can assume that they are involved in the mystery. Tilley (1991) used the buckling of the gun belt in the western genre of films as a means of signifying that a shoot out is about to begin. This works in the same way as, for example, starting a car engine to signify that a race is about to begin.

Domaille (2001) suggested that every story ever told can be fitted in to one of eight narrative types. These types all have a source and an original story that they are based upon.
1. Achilles - the fatal flaw that leads to the destruction of the previously flawless (or almost flawless) character. Examples include: Superman.
2. Candide - the indomitable hero who cannot be put down. Examples include: Indiana Jones, James Bond.
3. Cinderella - dreams come true. Examples include: Pretty Woman.
4. Circe - the chase, spider and the fly, the innocent and the victim. Examples include: Smokey and The Bandit, Terminator.
5. Faust - selling your soul to the devil, it may bring riches but eventually your soul belongs to him. Examples include: Bedazzled.
6. Opheus - the loss of something personal, the gift that is taken away and the tragedy or the journey that follows the loss. Examples include: My Sister's Keeper.
7. Romeo and Juliet - the love story. Examples include: Titanic.
8. Tristan and Iseult - the love triangle. Examples include: Pearl Harbour.

Vladmir Propp (1928) studied the narrative structure of folk tales. He concluded that all the characters could be resolved into only seven character types. (I used Shrek as my examples).
1. Villian - goes against the hero (also known as the antagonist). Examples include: The Fairy Stepmother.
2. The Donor - prepares the hero. Examples include: Donkey.
3. The (magical) Helper - helps the hero. Examples include: Puss in Boots.
4. The Princess and her Father - give the task to the hero. Examples include: Princess Fiona and her Father.
5. The Dispatcher - character who makes the task known and sends the hero off. Examples include: Lord Duloc.
6. The Hero - reacts to the Donor and weds the princess. Examples include: Shrek.
7. False Hero - takes credit for the hero's actions or tries to marry the princess. Prince Charming.

Shrek does however, break the conventions and creates a more modern approach to the typical faitytale narrative. Women are now equals in society which is why Princess Fiona knows combat and so can defend herself when needed, it also demonstrates that Fiona is in charge of her own destiny compared to the old fashioned values of when women were seen as posessions.

Campbell (1949) suggested the "universal hero monomyth" which looks at themes, concepts, myths and legends of almost every culture in the world are the underlying structure of iconography.

Levi-Strauss (1958) believed that all stories operated to certain Binary Opposites, for example good vs bad, rich vs poor. The ideas of his theory are important as they essentially reduce a complicated world to a simple structure. Things are either right or wrong, good or bad - there is no in between.
For example: The ideology behind a "Cop" and "Robber" is that -
Cop = conforming to society, adhering to the rules, participating in society and making it a better place.
Robber = an individual, doesn't conform, breaks the rules and causing disruption in society.

Bordwell and Thompson (1997) came up with a diagram to explain their theory. They also said that mise-en-scene, cinematography, editing and sound all contribute to the narrative through media terminology.

Cook (1985) stated that linearity of cause and effect within an overall trajectory of enigma resolved. So that by looking at a linear narrative, the mystery is always resolved at the end - similar to a conclusion. A high degree of narrative closure is often needed for the audience to feel satisified with the end of the media text. Narrative is a fictional world that contains verisimilitude especially governed by spacial and temporal coherence.

Tzvetan Todorov (1977) created a diagram to represent the theory of narrative. Narrative is based around character, actions and settings. Cause and Effect implies change.

1. A point of stable equilibrium. Everything is normal.
2. Stability is disrupted. Creates a stage of dis-equilibrium (usually actions of antagonist).
3. Recognition of disruption.
4. Re-create equilibrium through action directed against disruption (quest).
5. Restoration of new state of equilibrium.



What is a narrative?
(Story-telling)
- a series of actions in a cause and effect chain occuring in space and time.
- structured
- location and time-frame
- coherent (helps the audience understand)
- things happen in a designated time in a designated space with a series of actions to make it interesting
- how the different elements are organised to make sense
- reinforces meanings and beliefs of society, so has an ideological meaning
- linear, something that happens leads to something else that happens. It's chronological (A, B, C ...) This isn't always the case, but it's the most basic and most common structure of narrative.

Narrative - the structure of a story.
Diegesis - the fictional space and time implied by the narrative in the world in which the story takes place.
Verisimilitude - the quality of appearing to be true or real. For a story to engage the audience it must appear to be believable for them to watch it (the diegetic effect). The story must therefore have verisimilitude following the rules of continuity, temporal and spacial coherence.

Multi-Strand Narrative - more than one story going on.
Open Narrative - not all strands of the story are answered, it is questionable by the audience.
Closed Narrative - all the strands are tied up, no questions asked.
Interactive Narrative - the audience have some control over the narrative. For example, in the Final Destination films, the audience are allowed to select different endings or twists in the story. Point of View Narrative - the narrative is told from one person's perspective. For example Bridget Jones' Diary.